Methodological Flaws in the West's Study of Islam

By: Dr. Mustafa Tork Zahrani (Tehran, Iran)
The current developments in the world have made it necessary to undertake a serious study on religion, in general and on Islam, in particular. Unfortunately, for one reason or another, there are certain misconceptions about Islam in the West. Upon a survey of Western works in this respect, the following outlooks can be distinguished:
1. Some view Islam as alien to, and completely different from, other divine religions. Whereas Islam shares other divine religions many of their principles;
2. Another group introduces it as an aggressive entity, disregarding all other aspects of it;
3. A group considers it basically inflexible and uncompromising;
4. Another group claims that Islam is conservative and incompatible with modern innovations and developments;
5. Some others look at it as a discriminatory religion and refer, as an example, to the status of women in Islam. It is for such irrational misconceptions that Islamic movements are termed as "Islamism," "extremism," "politicization of Islam," "political revival of Islam," "fanaticism," "fundamentalism," and so on.(1) However, none of these terms explain the true implication of the current developments relating to Islam. Most of them are made by journalists and have no scientific basis. Moreover, some of these expressions like "fanaticism" and "fundamentalism" are borrowed from the extremisms of the followers of other religions such as Judaism and Christianity. Those who refer to the "return of Islam" idea assert that Islam is merely an ideological guise. Therefore, they say, the developments observed nowadays in Muslim countries should not be attributed to the politicization or political revival of Islam. These events are nothing but indications of the "return of Islam" while Islam is a political ideology on itself and the reason for its flourishing today is that other ideologies such as socialism, Naserism, and Arab nationalism have lost significance. In such a context, the dissident political forces in the Middle Eastern countries have taken advantage of the Islamic ideology. Thus, it is claimed, today's Muslim activists are the very nationalists of yesterday who are now presenting their nationalist slogans in the Islamic form.(2)
In this connection, some experts raise more fundamental and still old issues such as the relationship between, and the correlation of, wisdom and religion and tolerance in religion. Some others have held the collapse of communism as tantamount to the solution of the problem represented by the contradiction between wisdom and religion. They conclude that piety and religious observance has been replaced by wisdom. Therefore, such a notion, which is an aspiration dating back to the enlightenment period, has now become part of the universe. They are those determinants that at the same time believe in the centrality of wisdom. Their idea is a response to those who believe in the end of history as a philosophical necessity and a politically realized phenomenon. Contrary to a group of believers in the end of history who are optimistic about a future characterized by peace and tranquility, some opponents try persistently to present religious conflicts as irreconcilable.
These arguments were ignited especially by the collapse of the Soviet Union. And the end of history, an idea raised for the first time by Francis Fukuyama, is considered as their prelude. So far, this theory has been looked at from two perspectives:
1. Hegelian outlook to the effect that the historical dialectics has grieved its necessary and predictable result;
2.The end of history, i.e., the end of the cold war a period that George Kennan announced its beginning in 1946 and its end in the Foreign Relations Committee of the U.S. Senate in 1989 . The significant point of Fukuyama's theory is that he regards the final victory of the Western liberalism as the end of history.
In reaction to this optimistic view, some have warned against the hazards of Fascism. Hamilfarb, a professor at New York University, relying on the Islamic revolution in Iran and the Salman Rushdi affair, claims, in response to Fukuyama, that religion, nationalism, racism, and ethnicity will eventually stand, as ideological rivals, in the face of liberalism.(3)
The "clash of civilizations" theory, put forward by Samuel Huntington, is also one of the responses to Fukuyama. According to this theory, since the nation state phenomenon has lost its role as the unit of analysis for the study of international conflicts, and the war of ideologies has also ended, therefore, now is the time for the clash of civilizations. On this basis, for example, the Christian world will stand against the Muslim world. Obviously, the proponents of this theory are trying to suggest a new cold war that they call civilizational cold war.(4)
Another group is also trying to explain this cold civilizational war on the basis of the "center periphery" notion, signifying that since the Soviet Union does not exist anymore there is no longer a second world either and, therefore, there should be no reason to think of a third world. Those who discuss international developments based on this model believe that the aggression is initiated by the center and at the same time believe that from security point of view cultural and civilizational threats would come from the periphery against the center.(5)
In any case, the following points should be considered assumptions:
1. It is a mistake to be too optimistic with regard to international politics assuming that there would be no more ideological conflicts or that the world has become safe as a result of the issues which have been dealt with and that we are heading toward a global common market the only purpose of which is to meet the needs of human beings;
2. It cannot be claimed that "wisdom has achieved absolute victory" and that "reality has become logical and rational." Nor could it be said that Socrates' dialectic has reached the end of its way as far as its purpose, destination, and perfection are concerned;
3. It must be admitted that fundamental changes, including the collapse of Communism, have taken place in world's history that remind us of the need for religion;
4. Due to the development of technology and communications, many issues including religion have to be analyzed on a global scale because they involve global consequences or have taken on a global character.(6)
Considering the above assumptions, it becomes clear that methodological flaws are detected in the West's study of Islam. The most significant problem in this regard, which concerns the field of social sciences, is characterized by secularism. According to this view, industrialization and development of a society depends on diminishing the role of religion in that society. This idea has been presented in different forms. For example, it is said that the scientific principles of modern technology overshadows faith, or that when social foundations of a religion erode its organizational bases will also collapse, and finally that a rationalized religion ultimately contributes to the decline of itself. In other words, when a religion becomes worldly and secular it will gradually vanish because religion's main concern is the hereafter and the resur rection. Transformation of religion to a rationalized entity makes it worldly and void of transcendental concerns.(7) In this view, two aspects of development, namely modernization and secularism, are mentioned and both are claimed to be inconsistent with Islam. Whereas Turkey, for example, started her political development following a Western model several decades before Egypt, but nevrtbeless, as made very little progress indeed as compared with the latter country; bearing in mind that Egypt has been entangled in several wars during that period and that religious culture has not altered in Egypt as it has changed in Turkey.(8) This indicates that Islam is quite compatible with development, particularly with its modernization aspect.
The reason for the civilizational gap that Huntington mentions in the case of Turkey is the contradiction between the religious culture of people and the secularism of the political leaders of this country on the one hand and the non admission of Turkey to the European Common Market on the other.(9) This signifies that the secularization of a religious society is a source of crisis.
Needless to say, the idea of secularism is not applicable to Islam. During the recent century, although industrial and technological developments have taken place and many Islamic societies have abandoned their traditional ways of life, nevertheless, faith have increasingly grown in these societies. If national identity is assumed to be an important characteristic of the Modem Europe, then Muslim societies have also abandoned their tribal regimes and have been moving toward nation states. Noteworthy is that through shattering the tribal system, Islam provided the necessary elements for nation building and led Muslim societies toward civilization. The difference between Muslim and European societies in this regard is that in the West the nation state was established at the stake of religion while Muslims preserved their religion as they were embarking on nation building.(10)
The above arguments indicate that Islam must be studied from a scientific point of view. It is unfortunate, however, to see that, in the West, science has been politicized in many respects, especially in the case of social sciences. Therefore, it is recommended that the study of Islam is accomplished based on a scientific method through philosophical, sociological, and anthropological approaches. In this way, many misperceptions about religion, in general, and about Islam, in particular, will be corrected. It is true, of course, that in some cases Western scholars make no mistake in choosing the right approach. However, they seem to come across methodological difficulties in different stages and the process of research. Anthropological interpretation of religion would show to the analyst that Islam sets forth a social system that, although is a result of the existing realities, has its own influence on them. Islam is not merely a political ideology as claimed by the proponents of civilizational cold war. Rather, it is above all a set of cultural and convictional tenets.
It should also be noted that sanctity is only one aspect of Islam to be studied. To understand Islam, it would be necessary to study how religious ideas and symbols and sanctity are internalized. As such, it would be possible to become familiar with Islam as a social reality and a cultural convictional system. Islam, as awhole, is not fundamentalist or fanatic. Nor does it resist modernization or civilization. On the contrary, it provides certain means and processes for adaptation to these developments. From this perspective, Islam acts as a cybernetic and self adjusting system that is based on the control of data and communication. Islam's perception of knowledge is a clear evidence in this regard:
"Knowledge is of two categories. The first category includes those sciences in the fields of technology, industry, and mathematics, for example, that are subject to change and development. These sciences are the source of mankind's prog ress and have facilitated his control over the stubborn forces of the nature. The second category is comprised of those sorts of knowledge that do not change but, meanwhile, enjoy a certain kind of evolution. Instances from this category are those sciences that deal with the origin of creation and the eschatology resurrection in an explicit and strict way and show the avenues of human salvation or misery. This kind of sciences is not subject to change and transformation but they may evolve in the light of new attentiveness, reflection, and curiosity. They are responsible for determining general guidelines for human life without interfering in its specific details. Therefore, their stability or change do not cause a society to become stagnant or sluggish." (11)
Another remark is that Islam has three aspects: theology, ethics and rule making. A big difference between Islam and the Christianity of today is that Islam pays less attention to theology {kalam] than to jurisprudence fiqh} and this is agreed upon between Shi'is and Sunnis. In this regard Islam's attention to 'transactions' is important. Islam is a religion of fitrah [nature]. The Qur’an reveals that God did not first create religion and then order human being to follow it. On the contrary. His Almighty sent it down after the creation of human being and with due consideration of his nature and inner disposition.(12)
Therefore, in one definition, religion is what exists naturally in a pure and perfect human being. So if religion is a natural matter it should take heed of all existential aspects of man including his needs, propensities, greed, selfishness, wisdom and so on. Human being is by nature a social creature. That is why, according to the Qur'an, the first society was established by the messengers of God. The social rules of Islam are more than those set forth for individuals. In Islam's view human being is, by nature, looking for happiness and the real happiness requires that both physical and spiritual lives of man is secured and his well being in both worlds is assured.(13) Every one of his deeds is somehow related to matter and he satisfies his vital needs through it.(14) However, man can pursue two kinds of goals. Sometimes he may only aims at the worldly life, doing nothing except for the sake of achieving the benefits of the material life of this world, and thus, thoroughly averting the hereafter. At other times, he may be concerned about the afterlife. Another important matter is that human nature agrees with two things: enjoining to good deeds and the obedience of God; and prohibiting others from committing wrong deeds and sins, or calling to justice and avoiding deviation from righteousness.(15)
In Islam's view, wisdom is a principal factor too. In their discussion about man, political philosophers think about the element of "virtue" and have various expressions about it. Islam is proud to furnish the human being, besides virtue, with another valuable asset called "glory." This is specified in this Qur'anic verse: "And We glorified the mankind. (Isra: 70) " According to some interpreters of the Qur'an, man is even superior to angel. Here, the point is that Qur'an's reference to the concept of "glory" is in fact reference to the essence of wisdom. (16) On this basis many verses in the Qur'an discuss man's intellect and his rational character. Man thinks rationally by nature and Islam, as a religion compatible with nature, has confirmed and given emphasis to this element in him and does not approve of any irrational matter to such an extent that terms reason as the "inner prophet".(17)
So, one of the serious problems that has been a source of controversy concerning other religions, i.e., the distance between reason and religion, is basically solved in the case of Islam. That is why in Islamic jurisprudence [fiqh] reason is one of the main sources for extracting religious precepts including political, social, ritual and individual ones. In general, Islamic scholars never needed, in their exploration for the chains of cause and effect between different entities and the real essence of things, to look outside the sphere of Islamic rules. The reason lies in the fact that for several centuries Islam has been able to quench its followers' thirst for perception of causalities and to satisfy their thoughts in their efforts to find the truth. Therefore, there has never been any gap between sciences on one hand and religion and faith on the other. Whereas, the contrary is true about Christianity during the Renaissance. Besides, it was such a special attention to the importance of wisdom that significantly advanced rational sciences, especially mathematics, throughout the Islamic civilization and enabled Muslims to incorporate Pythagorath's concept of mathematical sciences into their universal theory.(18)
Another noteworthy point is that Islam pays special attention to the socio political conduct of individual. In Islam's view, human behavior originates from two sources: interior dispositions and exterior traits. In this regard the Qur'an states "Say: everyone acts according to his own trait; but your Lord best Knows who is best guided in the path." (Isra': 84) According to this verse, man has various traits and characteristics.
One trait originates from the attributes of his nature and structure of his creation. This trait is specific and is caused by interactions of man's physical organisms. It has an intermediary element that is a product of interaction among contrasting elements. The second trait is represented by those behavioral attributes that are created, in him, as a result of factors outside him. Human beings act in accordance with their spiritual traits and characteristics, and their physical actions are reflections of the qualities that exist in their souls. In this respect, a Qur'anic verse states: "Corrupt women are for corrupt men and corrupt men are for corrupt women and women of purity are for men of purity and men of purity are for women of purity ... (Nur: 26)." This verse specifies that a person's actions, whatever they are, reflect his characteristics.
Yet, there is another kind of relationship between, on the one hand, a person's actions and habits and, on the other hand, the characteristics of his external environment, including rituals, traditions, customs and imitated habits, that dominates his life. These factors too call a person to follow them and deter him from every action that disagrees with them and from disobeying them. Shortly thereafter a new picture emerges in man's mind against which he fears to act and consequently his actions will harmonize with the situation of his environment and the atmosphere of his social life. (19)
The actions of human beings are formed on the basis of the above two kinds of traits and sometimes exterior and environmental factors have a stronger effect than the interior attitudes.
Another remarkable point is that Islam is a religion for all times. This may seem at the first sight to represent a paradox when compared to this Qur'anic verse: "The true religion in the sight of God is Islam (Al Imran: 19), " which implies that religion is just one and constant. A question may arise that how a phenomenon can be constant and, at the same time, encompasses all changes. The answer is that Islam has paid considerable attention to the fact that all societies in all times have both changing and unchanging principles. Religion specifies the unchanging principles which are general and limited in number. In contrast to constant principles, changing ones are particular and unlimited. To figure out such particular principles, human being thinks and extract detailed rules and instructions based on general principles.
From this point of view, a society is in fact the reflection of natural and intrinsic exigencies of the mankind. The absolute society, namely the continuously existing society formed on the basis of the nature of mankind, is one of the features of absolute mankind which has always accompanied him. The necessary result of this principle is that all rules that originate from such a society should always remain in force. Although particulars of such rules may differ from one society to another their general character is preserved.(20) The difference between today's life and that of yesterday pertains only to a series of superficial issues which have nothing to do with general principles and the fundamental and real affairs of the society.(21) The consequence would be that, in the realm of political thought and government, Islam introduces no special model for political system like the one presented by Marxists that is a universal ideology with a global political purpose. Therefore, Algerians for example can establish their own particular model of Islamic state and the Palestinians can pursue a political course based on Islam and the realities of their own society. It is a mistake to say that Islam varies from one country to another. Nor is it correct to expect the idea of wilayat al-faqih [the guardianship of jurisconsult], which is particular to our Shi'i society, to be applied everywhere; though it is true that all Islamic societies wish to follow religious principles and just governments which are aware of religion. This desire originates from the nature of their creation and no power can suppress it.
Being aware of changing and constant principles, Islam is extremely careful while making laws. The laws and principles of Islam are, in fact, similar to mandatory principles found in modern international law. A study of Islam and its comparison with these principles reveal that it is Islam that has actually founded such principles. But, unfortunately, it is being assaulted at for political reasons and as a result of power related ambitions.
Of course, Islam recognizes man made laws, but its approval of them is limited to when they take heed of the nature of human being. Every law that is based upon human nature is also a divine law. Therefore, from the Islamic viewpoint law making by man is a natural and divine phenomenon and if a man made law addresses the natural man it will be regarded as religious too. The divine wisdom is reflected in the which takes law into consideration the nature of man and its manifestation in man is represented by the drive that is gifted to him and through which he thinks, selects, and achieves the highest degree of perfection.
After explaining the material aspects, Imam 'Ali ('a) says with respect to the creation of man:
" Then God infused from his soul into human existence and the final product of his creation was a rational organism. This creature can take advantage of his intellect to know the causes of everything. God also provided him with organs that assist him in his action and with a knowledge through which he can recognize the truthfulness of right and the falsehood of wrong ... Human being is a creature made of many colorful and colorless, many good and bad things. He is a mixture of contradictions arising from heat and cold, moisture and drought as well as happiness and distress."(22)
In one word, Islam is a religion of nature, wisdom, knowledge, and forbearance that supports the principles, values, and dignity of humanity.
Notes
1 . For more information see Asad Abu Khalil, "The Incoherence of Islamic Fundamentalism: Arab Islamic Thought at the End of the 20th Century," Middle East Journal, vol. 48, no.4 (Autumn 1994 ).
2 Middle East Policy, vol. 3, no. 20(1994).
3. "Responses to Fukuyama," The National Interest, no. 16 (Summer1998).
4. Samuel Huntington, "Clash of Civilizations," Foreign Affairs, vol.72, no.30 (Summer 1993), pp. 22- 49.
5. Barry Buzan, "New Pattern of Global Security in the Twenty First Century," International Affairs, vol. 167, no. 3 (July 1991).
6 . "Responses to Fukuyama," op.cit.
7. Ibid.
8. Akbar S. Ahmed and Hastings Donnan, "Islam in the Age of Post modernity," Islam, Globalization, and Postmodernity, (New York: Routledge, 1994).
9. "Responses to Samuel Huntington's Clash of Civilization," Foreign Affairs, vol. 72, no. 4 (Sep., Oct. 1993).
10. Ernest Geller, "Foreword" in Akbar S. Ahmed and Hastings Donnan (eds.), Islam, Globalization, and Postmodernity.
11. 'Allamah Muhammad Hossein Tabataba'i, Velayat va Ze'amat, Marja 'iyyat va Rowhaniyyat, Tehran; Enteshar, 1342 S.
12. See this verse of the Holy Qur'an: "... God's natural creation [fitrah] according to which He patterned mankind. There is no alteration in God's creation ..." (Rum: 30).
13, 'Allamah Muhammad Hossein Tabataba'l, Tafsir al Mizan, trans. By Hamedani, Makarem, et. al. (Tehran: Kanun e Entesharat e Mohammadi, 1353 S/ 1974 ), p. 223.
14. Ibid. vol. 40, p. 268.
15) Ibid, vol 13, p 114.
16 "Virtue" denotes those powers, which God has bestowed upon both mankind and animals with the difference that those granted to man are higher in terms of status and quality. In contrast, "glory" refers to the privilege that God has only bestowed upon the mankind only and animals are deprived of it. This privilege cannot be anything except "reason".
17 . See the following verses in the Holy Qur'an:
"Do you enjoin people to be virtuous and forget (to practice it) your selves, even as you recite the Book? Will you not use your reason?" (Baqarah'. 44)
"Thus, God revives the dead and shows you His signs so you may use your reason. " (Baqarah: 73)
"He controls the alternation between night and dayight. Will you not reason? " (Mu 'minun: 80)
"We have explained the signs to you so that you may use your reason. " (Hadid:17)
"Or do you reckon that most of them do hear or even use their reason? " (Furqan: 44)
18 . Seyycd Hossein Nasr, Nazar e Motafakkeran e Eslami Dar Bareh ye Tabi'at (Tehran: Kharazmi, 1359 S./1980), p. 120.
19, For more insight see: 'Allamah Tabataba'i, op. cit., vol. 13, pp. 318-19.
20. Mostafa Tork Zahrani, "Nazariyyeh ye Siyasiy e Allamah Tabataba'i," (M.A. dissertation), (Tehran: Daneshgah e Tarbiyat e Modarres, 1372 S./1993), p. 123.
21. Ibid.
22. Nahj al-Balaghah, Sermon 1.