Contribution of Shaykh al-Mufid to the Development of Shi'i Jurisprudence

By: Sayyid Ali Reza Naqavi
Shaykh al-Mufid is one of the early and most outstanding Shi'i scholars who has done yeoman service for the development of the Shi'i faith in general and Shi'i jurisprudence in particular. He was a prolific writer who has the authorship of about two hundred books and treatises to his credit. Their subject ranges from the life teachings, and sayings of the Holy Prophet's family (the Infallible Imams), exegesis of the holy Qur'an,philosophical and theological interpretation and explanation of the fundamental Shi'i doctrines (kalam), polemic discussions to counter the views and beliefs of opponents, including Shi'i scholars, to Shi'i jurisprudence.
In fact, al-Mufid was a great intellectual during an era when a large number of Shi'i scholars flourished in various fields of learning. He was a shining star in a galaxy of jurisprudents, theologians and muhaddithun (traditionists). He was one of the early Shi'i scholars who introduced the rational method in interpretation and elucidation of religious concepts. He is rightly considered a bridge between the old school of Shi'ism believing in adherence to the letter of the hadith and the later school of theology advocating a more rational interpretation of theology and religious beliefs. Some of his works on jurisprudence and kalam are prescribed in the curricula of Shi'i madrasahs to this day.

His Life and Times:
His name was Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Nu'man al-Harithi al-Ukbari al-Baghdadi al-Karkhi, his kunyah Abu 'Abd Allah, and his honorific title al-Mufid. As his father Muhammad ibn al-Nu'man had the honorific tile of al'Mu'allim, al-Mufid is also known as Ibn al-Mu'allim.' By origin he belonged to an old Quraysh family.
He was born in 'Ukbara, about 10 parsangs (40 miles) from Baghdad, on 11th of Dhu al-Qa'dah, in 336/948 or 338/950. While still quite young, he was brought to Baghdad, where he had most of his schooling under the tutorship of some of the leading Shi'i and Mu'tazili teachers. In Baghdad, he lived most of his life in the district of Karkh, which had a majority of Shi'i population. He took very little part in politics and was always wholeheartedly engaged in intellectual pursuits. His Shi'i teachers included the most outstanding authorities of his time in the field of theology and hadith, like Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Babawayh al-Qummi, known as al-Shaykh al-Saduq (d. 381/991), the famous author of Man la yahduruhu al- faqih, one of the four major collections of Shi'i hadith and the I'tiqadat, on which al-Mufid wrote a commentary, and Shaykh Ja'far ibn Qulawayh al-Qummi (d. 368/978-9), under whom he is reported to have studied another major collection of hadith, namely, al'Kafi, compiled by Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni (d. 329/940).
He was a contemporary of Qadi 'Abd al-Jabbar (d. 415/1024), a leading Mu'tazilite of Baghdad and Qadi Abu Bakr al-Baqillani, the most outstanding 'Ash'arite theologian of his time, and al-Mufid held polemic debates with both of these authorities of his age. According to an anecdote, after al-Shaykh al-Mufid came from his native 'Ukbara to Baghdad, one day he happened to attend a lecture by Qadi Abd al-Jabbar, the well-known Mu'tazilite scholar, where a large number of scholars of both the Islamic sects (i.e Shi'i and Sunni) were present. He sat in a humble corner of the lecture hall. Requesting the Qadi's permission to ask a question relating to the Ghadir tradition, he asked him as to whether the report was an authentic one. When the Qadi replied in the affirmative, al-Mufid then asked him as to what was meant by "mawla"" in the tradition. The Qadi answered that it meant "superior" {awla). The Shaykh then asked him, if such were the case, why should there be a controversy between the Shi'ah and Sunnis over the appointment of a successor to the Prophet. The Qadi said that Abu Bakr's Caliphate was a (matter of) dirayah (a report confirmed after critical study), while the Ghadir report was a riwayah (mere narration), and an intelligent person would never give up dirayah in favour of riwayah. Then the Shaykh enquired him about the authenticity of the tradition of the Holy Prophet {s) in which he is reported to have said to Imam Ali: "O Ali, a war waged by you is tantamount to a war waged by me, and a peace made by you is tantamount to a peace made by me." The Qadi confirmed the authenticity of the report. The Shaykh then asked the Qadi to disclose the position of those who fought against Imam Ali in the Battle of the Camel, whether they had apostatized by going to war against Ali. The Qadi said that they had repented. The Shaykh said that their fight against Imam Ali was a matter of dirayah, while their repentance was something based on riwayah . For a while the Qadi remained in a state of baffled silence. Then turning to the young man, he asked him who he was. "I am your servant, Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Nu'man". The Qadi rose from his seat, and taking the Shaykh with the hand made him sit down on his own seat, saying to him, "You are certainly Mufid (expedient)". There was a commotion among those present there. The Qadi explained: "This man has confuted me in argument and I am unable to answer him. If you can answer his question he will return to his earlier place."
This story was related to the Buwayhid ruler, *Adud al-Dawlah, who rewarded the Shaykh generously. Thenceforth, the Shaykh came to be known with the honorific title of "al-Mufid".
There is another similar report according to which the episode occurred at a lecture delivered of Ali ibn 'Isa al-Rummani. According to it the latter wrote a letter to the Shaykh's teacher in which he referred to him as "al-Mufid".(3)
The Shaykh used to receive queries on various religious matters and theological issues from different parts of the Muslim world, like Mosul, Jurjan, Dinawar, Raqqah, Khwarazm, Egypt and Tabaristan, and he would send convincing replies to those who had made the queries.
Al-Mufid's disciples" included some of the most prominent scholars of the 4th/10th and 5th/11th centuries, like the two great Shi'i scholars, al-Sharif al-Radi (d. 406/1015), the famous compiler of the Nahj al-Balaghah, a collection of the speeches, letters and sayings of Imam (A.S.), and al-Sharif al-Murtada (d. 436/1044), one of the greatest Shi'i jurists and scholars who made a valuable contribution to the development of the school of jurisprudence and theology founded by his teacher, al-Shaykh al-Mufid.
The third great disciple of al-Shaykh al-Mufid was Shaykh Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Tusi (d. 460/1068), a versatile genius and a master traditionist, jurist, exegete of the Qur'an and theologian, almost unparalleled in the whole history of Shi'i scholarship as regards the variety and volume of his work in different fields of religious learning. Al-Tusi happens to be the compiler of two of the four major collections of Shi'i tradition, namely, Tahdhib al-'ahkam and al-Istibsar. Both these works have been directly inspired by his teacher, al-Shaykh al-Mufid, as the former was compiled in order to provide authority, from the corpus of Shi'i hadith, for the opinions on different legal matters and issues mentioned in al-Mufid's monumental juristic work, al-Muqni'ah; The latter, as explained by the author in the introduction of the book, was meant as an explanation for the removal of misunderstandings arising from some apparent contradictions or anomalies found in a number of the traditions cited in the former work. Besides, the third great work by al-Tusi, namely, al-Mabsut, on jurisprudence was also evidently inspired by al-Mufid's al-Muqni'ah on the same subject, and is an extensive exercise in the same field.
As regards al-Mufid's time, it was a favorable period for the projection and propagation of the Shi'i faith, as the Buwayhids, who ruled Baghdad in those days, were Shi'i. They had conquered Baghdad in 334/945, and it were they who wielded real power throughout the domains of the Abbasid caliphs of their time. The patronage of the Buwayhids provided an opportunity in a way that had hitherto been almost unknown.

His Death:
Shaykh al-Mufid died on Friday, 30th Ramadan, 413/28th December, 1022. His funeral prayer is reported to have been led by his great disciple, al-Sharif al-Murtada, and attended by over eighty thousand mourners and admirers. At first, he was buried in his own house, but later his body was shifted to Kazimayn and buried there alongside his teacher, Ibn Qulawayh. Al-Murtada and Mahyar al-Daylam are among those who composed elegiac poems on al-Mufid's death in which they eulogized his achievements and moral virtues.

His Works
As already pointed out, al-Mufid is the author of about two hundred books and treatises, of which the titles of 180 books have been given by his disciple, al-Najashi, in his Fihrist, Al-Mufid made a pioneer contribution in the field of Shi'i jurisprudence and theology. His works may be classified under the following branches of Islamic learning:

(a) Works on the Qur'an:
1. I'jaz al-Qur'an.
2. Al Bayan fi anwa ulum al-Qur'an,
3. Al-Bayan fi talif al-Qur'an,
These books have most probably been instrumental in inspiring his great disciple, al-Shaykh al-Tusi, to write his monumental work, al-Tibyan, the first extensive exegesis of the Qur'an by a Shi'i author that is extant.

(b) Holy Biographies:
1. Al-Ikhtisas: It is an interesting book on the life of the Companions of the holy Prophet (S.A.W.) and the holy Imams, at the same time consisting some strange reports. Recent research has cast serious doubts on the authenticity of its ascription to al-Mufid.
2. Kitab al-'irshad: On the lives of the twelve Imams. The book is divided into two halves, the first half dealing with Imam Ali and the other with the other eleven Imams. In this work, al-Mufid has endeavored to highlight the unparalleled excellence of Imam Ali amongst the companions of the Holy Prophet, and also that he was nominated as the Prophet's successor by the Prophet himself. In the first half, he has also given the judicial rulings and a selection of the speeches of Imam Ali. This part of the work was later followed up by his disciple al-Sharif al-Radi, who compiled an extensive collection of the speeches, letters and sayings of Imam Ali,the Nahj al-Balaghah, which has been published several times, and its translations in different languages of the world have appeared in various places. It has also been rendered into English time and again and published in India, Pakistan, Iran and elsewhere.
The other half of the work, besides a brief account of the lives of the Imams, also contains a collection of traditions dealing with the critical aspects of their Imamate and a number of other polemical issues.

(c) Theology & Kalam:
Al-Mufid has written a number of books on various matters relating to Shi'i theology and kalam, which mainly deal with the questions regarding the nature and necessity of Imamate. One of the main works relating to kalam is al-Mufid's commentary on al-Saduq's I'tiqadiyyah (or al-Itiqadat) which has been printed several times in Iran, and its translations in Persian and other languages have also appeared in different places.

(d) Polemical Works:
A number of polemical works have been written by al-Mufid in which he has tried to refute the opinions of opponents including some Shi'i scholars like lbn al-Junayd.

(e) Jurisprudence
Besides some short treatises on juristic subjects, al-Mufid's works in the field of jurisprudence are as follows:
1. Tadhkirah on usul al-fiqh. Al-Mufid had written this book on Shi'i jurisprudence, which, as acknowledged by his disciple al-Shaykh al-Tusi in the introduction of his book, 'Uddat al-'usul, served as an example in writing the latter book.
2.Al-Muqni'ah, As already pointed out, al-Mufid's disciple, al-Shaykh al-Tusi compiled his book, Tahdhib al-'ahkam, a collection of the traditions serving as authority for the opinions expressed by his teacher in al-Muqni'ah. So also his other work, al-Istibsar, was also compiled by al-Tusi in a way in relation to the same work. Al-Mufid's al-Muqni'ah also served as an example for al-Tusi in writing a more extensive and detailed book on the same subject, namely, al-Mabsut.
Al-Muqni'ah contains juristic opinions on various problems relating to the 'ibadat from salat to hajj and the mu'amalat from nikah (marriage) to hudud. The introduction of the book also contains a brief discussion on some basic Islamic doctrines like tawhid, nubuwwah and Imamah.
The book has been published several times separately as well as along with some other smaller works. One of the latest editions is a reprint of the al-Jawami' al-fiqhiyyah which among other smaller books also contains the text of al-Muqni'ah, and has appeared from Qumm, Iran, in 1404/1984.

Al-Mufid's Status and Character:
In the light of the opinions expressed by al-Mufid's outstanding contemporaries and disciples concerning him, he occupies a very high place among Shi'i theologians, traditionists, and jurists. He has been eulogized by them for his erudition in jurisprudence, a profound knowledge of tradition and its narrators, his quick wit, his love of justice and his keen interest in poetry. He had a formidable talent for retorting aptly to his adversaries in polemic debates, but at the same time he was very considerate towards people having different beliefs. He was very generous, God-fearing, very pious, and engaged in prayer through most of day and night. He wore garments made of thick and coarse cloth, and was known for his piety, austerity and abstinence. His son-in-law, Abu Ya'la al-Jafari is reported to have said about his father-in-law that al-Mufid used to sleep for a few hours at night. The rest of his time he would pass in offering prayers, studying books, teaching or reciting the Qur'an.

Conclusion:
From the above discussion we may safely conclude that al-Shaykh al-Mufid made a considerably valuable and important contribution to the development of the Shi'i theology and jurisprudence. He not only imbibed the knowledge of theology and hadith from his predecessors like al-Shaykh al-Saduq and Ibn Qulawayh, but also made a richening and lasting impact on the succeeding generations of jurists in the field of theology and jurisprudence. His works on theology and jurisprudence have served as an example not only for his own great disciples, like al-Sharif al-Radi, al-Sharif al-Murtada and al-Shaykh al-Tusi, but they have also gone a long way in inspiring the future generations of Shi'i jurists, traditionists, and theologians in the compilation of their larger and more extensive works in their respective fields.
NOTES:
1. Tabrizi, Muhammad Ali, Rayhanat al-'adab, IV, p. 58. But I.K.A. Howard, the English translator of al-Mufid's al-Irshad, in his introduction says: "During his lifetime he was given the nickname (laqab) of Ibn al-Mu'allim, the son of the teacher. The teacher par excellence to the Arabs was Aristotle and this nickname may refer to al-Shaykh al-Mufid's great learning as being such that he could be regarded intellectually as if he were the son of Aristotle." (p. xxi)
2. For a list of his fifty-nine teachers see al-Majlisi, Muhammad Baqir,Bihar al-'anwar (Qumm, n.d.), I, pp. 74-77.
3. See Tabrizi, Muhammad Ali, Rayhanat al-'adab, op. cit., IV, p. 59.
4. For a list of his 15 disciples see al-Majlisi's Bihar al-'anwar, op. cit., I, p. 78.
5. For the titles of the books on this subject see Najashi's Fihrist and Tabrizi's Rayhanat al-'adab, op. cit., p. 60.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following books, inter alia, have been consulted in the preparation of this paper:
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