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The Maqtal Genre: A Preliminary Inquiry and Typology*
By: Prof. Dr. Muhammad-Reza Fakhr-Rohani
Department of English, University of Qom,
Qom, Iran
dr_fakhr_rohani@yahoo.com
Abstract
In the azadari tradition, a maqtal text characterizes a written account or monograph mainly, but not exclusively, on the martyrdom of Imam al-Husayn. As such, maqtal texts make a genre sui generis, though so far largely neglected. They function both as a text to be recounted in azadari gatherings and as a historiographical account, with varying degrees of authenticity and foci. Although earlier maqtal texts were written in Arabic, they are now available in other languages, for different age groups, and in a variety of literary forms. As it seems that there has not been any classificatory scheme for a typology of maqtal texts, the present article is an effort to fill in the gap by proposing a preliminary typology of such texts.
Keywords: azadari, maqtal, Imam al-Husayn, Karbala, Ashura.
The Arabic word maqtal (plural maqatil) means, inter alia, “place of slaughter or execution; place of death, i.e. any part of the body, which, being wounded, causes death” (Steingass 1892/1984, s.v. maqtal). [1] It has another meaning which concerns the annual commemorative sessions (viz. majalis) held to lament the martyrdom of Imam al-Husayn and the heart-rending Ashura tragedy of AH 61/680 CE. The latter use, though not recorded in most Arabic- or Persian-English dictionaries, concerns “martyrdom narrative” (cf. Ayoub 1987, p. 153); more specifically, it refers to a written account of the martyrdom of Imam al-Husayn.[2] Typically, a maqtal touches upon the lives of Imam al-Husayn and his loyal companions who sacrificed their lives on Ashura.[3-4]
Maqtals are important in at least two respects. The first one is a historical factor. It is a written record of the oppressions and atrocity which Yazid’s agents committed at the Battle of Karbala. As a record of the afflictions and hardships of the Imam al-Husayn front, it receives a value-laden religious coloring and, accordingly, comprises part of the Shiite commemorative rituals. Viewed from this perspective, a great number of Muslim ulema, whether Sunnite or Shiite, have authored books on the Karbala tragedy. [5] Although classical or major maqtals have been, and still tend to be, written in Arabic, there have been maqtals in other languages, too. [6-7]
Secondly, sharing a number of features, maqtal books measure up to a specific genre. They focus almost exclusively on the Karbala tragedy in which the pivotal character is Imam al-Husayn. They may mention other events as subsidiary or in support of the main line of the narrative. While biographies start the narrative from the birth of Imam al-Husayn, maqtals have a strong focus on the events taken place on Ashura. Yet, both never lose their focus of the martyrdom of Imam al-Husayn. However, digressions are quite normal as the discourse structure of Persian is totally different from that of English: Arabic and/or Persian discourse structures are not as direct as English is.
Maqtals are written as a devotional record as well as a text to be recited or read out on Muharram mourning days.[8-9] While the practice of Arabic-speaking, chiefly Iraqi, mourners is that a person reads out a maqtal and the mourners listen and weep, such a practice has not been so customary among Iranians. Instead, Iranians prefer rowzeh khani, the apex of which is mosibat khani. Despite the central role of mosibat and mosibat khani in such devotional and commemorative rituals, some scholars (e.g. Nakash [1993] seem to bypass them. (Despite his amazing and praiseworthy research and scholarship, Nakash (ibid., p. 163) does not include mosibat or mosibat khani in the “five major rituals [developed] around the battle of Karbala.”)
The maqtal genre can be viewed from a purely linguistic perspective. From the speech-act perspective, it can be regarded as a macro-speech-act text, comprised of multiple micro-speech-acts. Considering its effects of arousing sentiments and sympathetic feelings, it can be regarded as a type of “effective language acts” (Felman 1980/1983, p. 31). Drawing upon the original Austinian notions of ‘constative’ and ‘performative’ (see Austin 1975), one may find out that despite the apparent ‘constative’ feature of the maqtal books which seemingly ‘report’ certain past incidents, they are in reality true instances of ‘performatives’, for recounting them “is part of the doing or accomplishing of an action” (Nagarajan 2006, p. 263), not merely reporting them, devoid of effects. On anology with the notion that “[a]ll that we designate literature is performative” (Nagarajan, ibid), one can argue that what we designate as maqtal or mosibat text is virtually ‘performative’ in character. Hence, it can be argued that such texts constitute what can be safely regarded as ‘religious or ritual performatives or speech acts’, by means of which both the person who recounts them and those who listen to them jointly perform a religious or ritual speech act. Such acts fit what Austin terms as “behabitives” because they express “attitudes and social behaviour” (Austin 1975, p. 152); in Searle’s terminology they are regarded as “expressives”, for they “express the psychological state […] about a state of affairs” (Searle 1979, p. 15). Moreover, as “a [language] game is a type of social activity, a form of life” (Souza Filho 1984, p. 2), azadari or mosibat khani represents a specific type of language game, hence a type of social activity as well as a form of life. [10-11]
Stylistically, mosibat khani can be regarded as reading out part of a maqtal. Whereas a maqtal is expected to be a book- or monograph-length account, mosibat is normally a short, oral text, usually focusing on one or two episodes or scenes aimed at evoking the audience’s intense tearful and emotional responses. However, both belong to the same genre, as they have the same “thematic content” and “expressive capacity” (Frow 2006, pp. 64, 72) and meet certain “sets of conventions and expectations” (Culler 1997, p. 72), hence “appropriate to a type of situation” (Frow 1980, p. 78). Granted that “every work is its own genre, is sui generic” (Schlegel [1957, p. 116]; qtd. in Frow [2006, p. 26]), “genre is defined ‘by the way it expresses human experience (subject matter) through an identifiable form (formal character) that clarifies or discovers the values in or attitude toward that experience (generic attitude)’.”(Imbrie [1986, p. 60]; qtd. in Frow [2006, p. 73]). It follows that each maqtal (or mosibat) text proves to be a genre which encodes parts of Shiite religio-historical, hence collectively, cultural experience and, accordingly, manifests “a framework for processing information” (Frow 2006, p. 80). Unfortunately, maqtal (or mosibat), as a distinct genre, has not received the due attention. This article aims to fill in such a serious gap.
The mosibats have a range of foci persona. This range is virtually divided into the infallible vs. un-infallible ones. The only infallible personality is Imam al-Husayn, widely referred to as ‘sayyid al-shuhada’ (the prince of martyrs). The other personalities, all un-infallible, who are lamented, can be further divided into those who were martyred on Ashura vs. who passed away later on, mainly female persona. The former category includes Abbas, the water-carrier and banner-bearer of Imam al-Husayn’s camp, Ali al-Akbar, and Ali al-Asghar. In the latter category are Zainab and Imam al-Husayn’s (three- or four-year old) daughter who passed away in Damascus and was buried there. Besides the above, Imam al-Husayn’s cousin and envoy Muslim b. ‘Aqil and his two young children who were beheaded are also lamented, all un-infallible. Yet in another classification the Imam’s companions can be divided into Hashimid versus non-Hashimid companions, each further subdivided into males vs. females. Ali al-Akbar is exemplary of a Hashimid martyr and Hurr, symbol of last-minute penitence and salvation, is a non-Hashimid martyr. Notice must be made that there were a few Christian martyrs, too, e.g. Wahab and his mother. Although all the Ashura martyrs are respected, the Hashimid are most venerated and are in the focus of mosibat khani and maqtal-author’s concentration.
Maqtal texts may be classified in a number of ways. Guenther’s (1994) paper provides a first survey of early maqtal literature in Arabic, with a thematic array from the pre-Islamic times up to the Karbala tragedy. However, it does not offer a classification or typology of the maqtal texts dealing exclusively with Karbala. As there are various kinds of maqtal books, it is time for devising a typology or a classificatory scheme of them.
While classical or original maqtal books have appeared in Arabic, there have been a large number of maqtal books in other languages, whether merely translations from Arabic or original publications (drawing upon Arabic sources). Amongst maqtal books in other languages, one can mention Persian translations of Luhuf of Ibn Tawus (or its English translation by Athar Husain Rizvi [2007]), Nafas al-Mahmum of Sheikh Abbas Qomi, the English translation of Abu Mikhnaf’s Kitab Maqtal al-Husayn, by H. Mavani, or a German study of its sources, contents, and ways of transmission by U. Sezgin (1971). While maqtal books are traditionally expected to have a heavy focus on the tragic scenes of the afflictions imposed on Imam al-Husayn’s front, there are some accounts which have appeared in recent years devoted to analytical treatment of the whole incident, adopting a socio-psychological or political approach, e.g. Ayati’s seminal volume Barrasi-ye Tarikh-e Ashura (also available in English translation).
Another classification concerns the narrator. Whereas almost all Persian maqtals rely on Arabic sources, a great majority of classical Arabic maqtal texts are incidents recorded by either eye-witnesses or those who relied on the eye-witnesses’ accounts, hence in some respects at variance with one another. There is at least one maqtal which is superior by far to all the other ones; that is the maqtal compiled originally by Abu Ja`far Muhammad b. Ali b. al-Husayn b. Musa b. Babwayh al-Qummi, commonly known as Sheikh al-Saduq (d. A. H. 381/991 CE). Although the original maqtal of Sheikh al-Saduq is believed to have been extinct, hence no longer directly available, [12] it has been reconstructed from the sources which quoted its fragments. The unique feature of this maqtal which makes it stand as the crown of all other ones is its quotations from the Infallible Imams as well as other reliable authorities on the Ashura tragedy. Certainly none of the other maqtals can match it. [13] There is also a famous prayer text widely known as “Ziarat al-Nahiya al-Muqaddasa,” originally ascribed to, hence composed by, the Infallible Imam al-Mahdi, in which a clear and moving picture of the whole tragedy is portrayed. [14] Next to these infallible-portrayed maqtals, one can mention the other ones, provisionally divided into those ascribed to Shiite versus Sunnite sources, reporters, or authorities.
Maqtal texts can also be divided according to their audience. While non-simplified maqtal texts seem suitable for scholars who prefer to approach the episode in its original form, [15] there are simplified versions designed for non-experts, further divided into those for adults versus young boys and girls. [16]
Maqtal texts vary with regard to their focal events. While the main focus and the most tragic event is undoubtedly the martyrdom of Imam al-Husayn, the events can concern those which took place on Ashura versus those which took place either before or after the Imam’s heart-rending martyrdom. The events which took place on Ashura include the martyrdom of Imam al-Husayn and most of his matchless companions, e.g. Abbas, Ali al-Akbar, Ali al-Asghar, and so on. Pre-Ashura tragic events concern such incidents as the arrest and martyrdom of Muslim b. ‘Aqil and his two sons and the enemy’s ban of water. The events which took place after the Imam’s martyrdom include the enemies’ attacking the tents and looting and burning them, captivating the surviving women, children, and Imam Ali b. al-Husayn. These scenes stretch to Yazid’s happy ceremonies and bringing the triumphant captives into his palace in Damascus. Perhaps the most tragic and impressing scene of the Damascus phase is the story of the demise of Imam al-Husayn’s daughter at the sight of the Imam’s severed head laid before him.
The modes of expressing the maqtal contents are now quite varied. Regardless of the language used (e.g., Arabic, Urdu, Turkish, etc.) most of them are performed orally and the audience follow up and shed tears in silence. [17] Other modes of expression concern plays, e.g. Sharqawi (2003), poems [18], and prose. [19]
Here only a preliminary sketch of a typology and certain speech-act aspects of maqtals have been rendered. No doubt, each and every of the points elaborated above can be further developed so as to dive deep in the fascinating ocean of the present unexplored religio-cultural atmosphere. May the Almighty grant us with His grace to accomplish such a task. Amen!
Notes:
*This is a revised version of the same paper read at the National Seminar on Tradition of Azadari of Muharram in India, held at Iran Culture House, New Delhi, 18-19 November 2006.
Although maqatil is the Arabic plural form, I deliberately use maqtals, rather than maqatil, to conform to the English rule of pluralization.
Linguistically the term maqtal always appears in collocation with the name (and/or appellative designations) of Imam al-Husayn, hence in Arabic maqtal al-Husayn ‘the martyrdom account or narrative of Imam al-Husayn’, or in Persian maqtal-e Emam Hoseyn (with the same meaning as above).
Although the number of the Karbala martyrs is given as seventy-two, the reality is that some 100 martyrs, whose names inscribed on gold tablets, are buried near the foot of Imam al-Husayn inside his shrine (personal observation).
There is a practice of maqtal khani among Arab, particularly Iraqi, peoples; the same practice is referred to kitab khwani, that is ketab khani, among the Shia of India. (See Howarth, Glossary, s.v. kitab khwani.)
For a (partial and relatively short) list of Arabic maqtals see, for example,
al-Tabasi (1424AH/2003, pp. 9-20), and al-Tabatabaie (1417AH/1996, passim).
For a bibliography of Persian maqtal books, see Pour-Amini (1382 Sh/2002, Bibliography).
For rowzeh khani with a focus on the typical Iranian practice, see G. Thaiss, “Rowzah Khvani”, in The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World, ed. J. L. Esposito (4 vols., New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 3: pp. 412-413.
Granted that the Islamic lunar months of Muharram and Safar are characterized by holding mourning sessions, more passionate sessions (viz. majalis) are held on the seventh to tenth day of Muharram (viz. Ashura), on the twentieth day of Safar, known as Arba`in (lit. forty, fortieth), and the twenty-eighth of Safar, the anniversary of the demise of the Prophet Muhammad and Imam al-Hasan.
The Persian word mosibat (from Arabic musibah) means ‘A misfortune, disaster, calamity, evil, misery, ill, trouble, adversity, agony’ (Steingass, Persian-English Dictionary). However, in the tradition of mourning, mosibat signifies ‘a sorrowful account or narrative of the afflictions imposed on Imam al-Husayn’s front’.
Although the Persian word azadari means ‘mourning’, I deliberately prefer to use the former rather than the latter, for azadari is particularly associated with commemorative sessions held in memory of Imam al-Husayn and the Karbala tragedy. Granted that it has not been recorded in major English dictionaries (e.g. The Oxford Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases [1997], Shorter Oxford English Dictionary [5th ed., 2 vols., 2002], Concise Oxford English Dictionary [11th ed. rev., 2006], Oxford Dictionary of English [2nd ed., 2003], The New Oxford American Dictionary, 2nd ed., 2005], or Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary [11th ed. 2003]), it has been in use in other publications (e.g. Baumgardner, Kennedy, and Shamim [1993, p. 189], Schubel [1993, p. 13], Ahmed [2004, p. 162], Hyder [2006, p. 9], and Aghaie [2004, p. 72], to name just a few.)
For an earlier study of the speech-act aspects of the use of honorifics for the infallibles and highly-venerated religious dignitaries as well as sacred objects and texts, see Fakhr-Rohani (2005).
Sheikh al-Saduq was a prolific author. Despite his over 250 books and monographs, only fourteen of them have survived.
There is a Persian translation of this book: Maqtal al-Husayn be Revayat-e Sheikh-e Saduq: Imam Husayn va Ashura as Zaban-e Ma`suman, ed. and trans. Muhammad Sehhati-Sardroudi (2nd ed., Tehran: Hastinama, 1384 Sh/2006).
14. There is an English translation of this maqtal-like ziarat text, see Majd (2004).
15. Such maqtal texts, if accessible, are available in either in Arabic or in translation. H. Mavani (2002) produced an English translation of Abu Mikhnaf’s Maqtal; Athar Husayn Rizvi produced an English version of Ibn Tawus’s Al-Luhuf; Sezgin (1971) developed a German version of it; and quite a great number of Iranian translators worked out a great number of Persian versions of Ibn Tawus’s al-Malhuf (commonly known as al-Luhuf) by Mirza Reza Gholi Khan Shaqaqi (d. 1283 AH/1266 CE) and Abu Mikhnaf’s Maqtal, see Yusofi-Gharavi (1383 Sh/ 2004), to mention just a few.
16. The booklets developed by Mahdi Vahidi-Sadr (1385 Sh/2006) in Persian are representative in this regard.
17. This type of azadari-specific silence is very interesting from a purely pragmatic view, most of whose features yet uncovered in such works on silence as, for example, in Agyekum (2002). Hyder (2006) touches on certain implicatures of this type of azadari-specific silence but not from a linguistic pragmatic perspective.
18. Generally known as marthiya (var. marsiya), poems concerning the Ashura episode are very legion, and it seems to be almost an unfeasible task to be able to collect all the poems so far composed, for there is virtually no end to such a literary heritage and trend, particularly with regard to such languages as Arabic (see, e.g. Shubbar [1409 AH/1988]), Persian (see, e.g. Mojahedi [1379 Sh/1999], and Urdu (see, e.g. the marsiya of Mir Babar Ali Anis [1801-1874] and that of Mirza Salamat Ali Dabir [1803-1875]). Recently, there has been an effort to collect the English poems composed on the Ashura tragedy, see Fakhr-Rohani (2007).
19. Apart from such texts as those specifically concerned with recounting of the Karbala tragic events, books on the virtues of paying ziarat and remembering Imam al-Husayn prove moving and heart-rending.
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