This points to the fact that (in these matters) consideration is given only to what is hidden iii the heart. A hypocrite who shows faith and hides disbelief is a disbeliever, while a believer who under compulsion shows disbelief and hides faith is a believer; and Allah better knows that is hidden in the hearts of all. (Vide Tafsir Mafatihu ‘l ghayb, Egypt, under verse 19:10).)
[44][13] Qur’an, 16:106.
[45][14] (a) as-Suyuti, Tafsir ad-Durru 'l-manthur, vol. 4, p. 132;
(b) ar-Razi, Tafsir Mafatihu l-ghayb;
(c) az-Zamakhshari, Tafsir al-Kashshaf, Beirut, vol. 2, p. 43c). Practically all books of Tafsir describe this event under this verse.
[46][15] Qur’an, 3;28-29.
[47][16] as-Suyuti, ad-Durru l-manthur, vol. 2, pp. 10-17.
[48][17] as-Sayuti, ad-Durru 1-Manthur Ed 2.page. 16-17.
[49][18] al-Bukhari, as-Sahib. Egypt ed., vol. 9, pp. 24-25.
[50][19] as-Sayid ar-Radi, Tafsir Haqa'iqu 't-ta'wil, vol. 5, p. 74.
[51][20] Qur’an, 2;173.
[52][21] Mulla `Ali Muttaqi, Kanzu l-`ummal, Beirut, 5th ed., 1405/1985, vol. 3, p. 96, hadith no. 5665.
[53][22] al-Kulayni, al-Kafi, Tehran, 1388, vol. 2, p.174.
[54][23] Qur’an, 40:28
[55][24] `ubaydullah Amritsari, Arjahu 'l-rnatalib, 2nd ed., p. 23
[56][25] Qur’an, 20.18; Tafsir al-Baydawi, Egypt, vol. 1, pp. 112, 396 as quoted in Fulkun-Najat, vol. 2, p. 103.
[57][26] as-Suyuti, ad-Durru 'l-manthur, vol. 6, p. 77
[58][27] Qur’an, 48:25
[59][28] as-Sayid ar-Radi, op. cit, p. 77.
[62][30] Matthew, 22:15-22
[63][31] Acts, 23:6-9
[67][2] Talal Asad. Genealogies of Religion: Discipline and Reasons for Power in Christianity and Islam. (London: John Hopkins University Press: 1993), 27; Ali Gheissari and Vali Nasr. Democracy in Iran: History and the Quest for Liberty. (New York: Oxford University Press: 2006), 10.
[68][3] Immanuel M. Wallerstein. "Eurocentrism and its Avatars: The Dilemmas of Social Science.” (Articles by Immanuel M. Wallerstein)
http://www.binghamton.edu/fbc/iweuroc.html (Accessed March 24, 2006).
[69][4] Talal. Genealogies of Religion. (London: John Hopkins Univ. Press: 1993), 27.
[70][5] Hamid Algar, personal communication, 23 January 2007.
[71][6] What is often neglected are the Shia communities outside of Iran i.e. Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iraq, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Philippines, Lebanon, Syria, among others are vibrant with their own local histories.
[72][7] Hamid Algar, personal communication, 20 April 2007.
[73][8] Aqa Mirza Sayyid Muhammad. Faiza & Behnaz Raufi (transl.). Yadash-hai Muntasher—e—Nashda Inqilab o-Mashruti e-Iran. (Unpublished Memories of Revolution of Constitution of Iran). (Tehran: Nashr’ Abi Publishers: 1382 A.H./1962 C.E.), 21, 23, 25.
[74][9] ‘Ulama should not be conflated with the term “priesthood” which connotes an entirely different history referring to the development of Christianity and implies sacredness of authority, a concept that is refuted by Islam. Therefore, the meaning of ulama are uniquely and entirely Islamic as well as the place they hold in Muslim societies, and do not have a direct synonyms in the English language or in Christian societies. Hamid Algar. Religion and State in Iran 1785-1906: The Role of the ‘Ulama in the Qajar Period. (Los Angeles: University of California Press: 1969).
[75][10] Sayyid is an honorific title that signifies a person is descendent of Prophet Muhammad through his daughter, Fatima. For women an “-a” is added at the end, for example sayyida. Variant spellings include Sayyed, Sayid, Syed, Sayed, Seyed, etc.
[76][11] Mirza is an old title assumed by men of letters.
[77][12] Madrassas were seminaries where religious studies formed the bulk of the curriculum. Vanessa Martin. Mysticism and Dissent: Socioreligious Thought in Qajar Iran. (New York: Syracuse University Press: 1982); 24, 187, 190-92.
[79][14] William L. Cleveland. A History of the Modern Middle East. (US: Westview Press: 2001), 115.
[80][15] Ibid.
[81][16] Hamid. Religion and State in Iran. (Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press: 1969), 262.
[82][17] Taj. Anna and Amin (transl.). Crowning Anguish (Washington DC: Mage Publishers: 1993), 70, 73.
[83][18] See Hamid Algar. Mirza Malkum Khan: A Study in Iranian Modernism. (University of California Press: 1973).
[84][19] These two categories do not encompass all views of the Constitutional Revolution.
[85][20] Nikkie R. Keddie. “Religion and Irreligion in Early Iranian Nationalism, Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 4, No. 3. (1962) 274.
[86][21] Ibid., 183-84, 188.
[87][22] Imam Ali Reza, or Rida’ (765–818 CE) is the eighth Imam in the line of Twelve Imams. His mausoleum is in Mashhad, Iran and a site of pilgrimage for Twelver Shias. See Yousuf N. Lalljee. Know Your Islam. (New York: Tahrike Tarsile: 1993), 123.
[88][23] Basti refers to people who took refuge in a sanctuary as a sign of protest. They would protect themselves from harm in a holy place on the assumption that government officials would respect such a place.
[89][24] Edward. Persian Revolution. (Cambridge: Cambridge University: 1910), 111-12.
[90][25] Ibid., 122-23.
[91][26] Located in Rayy is a historic city on the southern outskirts of Tehran. Ibid; “The Causes of Constitutional Revolution in Iran.” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 10 (1979), 405.
[92][27] Edward. Persian, 121.
[93][28] Later he became the prime minister under Mohammad Ali Shah.
[94][29] The Cossack Brigades were the Iranian mercenaries hired by the Qajars, trained by the Russians and led by Colonel Liakoff; Edward. Persian Revolution, 112-117.
[95][30] Western is used as an umbrella term; Western means specifically the British, Russians and Belgians.
[96][31] Iran was never actually colonized; the British, Russians and Belgians did infiltrate the Iranian economy and sought to overtake Iran piecemeal. They controlled certain territories—Russia in the north, Britain in the south until World War I—but as did Qajar princes, provincial governors, tribal chieftains, lutis (street gangs), landlords and the like.
[97][32] Vanessa Martin. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in 19th–Century Persia. (London: I.B. Tauris: 2005), 18; Sayyid Muhammad. Faiza and Behnaz (transl.). “Unpublished Memories,” 21-23.
[98][33] Reza M. Ghods. Iran in the Twentieth Century. (London: Adamantine Press: 1989), 35.
[99][34] Sepher H. Joussefi “Seyyed Hasan Taqizadeh: A Political Biography in Context of Iranian Modernization.” Master’s Thesis. (Netherlands: Utrecht University: 1998), 29.
[100][35] Ervand Abrahamian. Iran Between Two Revolutions. (New Jersey: Princeton University Press: 1982), 36-37; Ali and Vali. Democracy in Iran, xi.
[101][36] Nikkie R. Keddie. Qajar Iran and the Rise of Reza Khan 1796–1925. (California: Mazda Publishers: 1999), 19; Ervand. Ibid, 37-38.
[102][37] Persian is the ethnicity of people from Iran.
[103][38] Ervand. Two Revolutions. (New Jersey: Princeton Univ. Press: 1982), 39.
[104][39] Ibid.
[105][40] Ibid, 41; Said Amir Arjomand. The Turban for the Crown. (New York: Oxford University Press: 1988), 36.
[106][41] Said. Turban for Crown, 34. Leslie Peirce, personal communication, 25 October 2005.
[107][42] Ibid.
[108][43] Ibid, 73; Nikkie. Religion and Rebellion in Iran: The Tobacco Protest of 1891-1892, (London: Frank Cass: 1966) 35.
[109][44] Reza. Twentieth Century, 27; Edward. Persian, 24, 54; Nikki. Religion and, 69, 94, 96.
[110][45] Hasan-i-Shirazi and Husayn Ashtiyani; Telegrams sent Feb. 2, 1892 and Feb. 5, 1892; Nikkie. Religion and Rebellion, 145-147.
[111][46] Vanessa. Islam and Modernism, 35.
[112][47] When a qualified jurist, mujtahid, exerts his intellectual faculties to find a solution in law. From Oxford Encyclopedia, under Ijtihad. Wael B. Hallaq and John L. Espito (ed.). (NY: Oxford Univ. Press: 1995), 179.
[113][48] Bayat devotes much of her book Iran’s First Revolution to this aspect. Vanessa. Islam and Modernism, 36.
[114][49] Taj. Crowning Anguish, 236.
[115][50] The ‘ulama from Iran were educated at Qum and the ones from Iraq were educated in seminaries located in the shrine cities of Najaf, Samarra and Kerbala collectively called the Atabek.
[116][51] Reza. Twentieth Century. (London: Adamantine Press: 1989), 16.
[117][52] Abdallah Al-Sheikh; John L. Espito (ed.), Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam. Article under Zakat.
[118][53] Hamid Algar, personal communication, 27 February 2007.
[119][54] Awqaf were often schools, madrassas, cemeteries, mosques, and other public institutions.
[120][55] Edward. Persian Revolution, 147.
[121][56] Sayyid Muhammad. Unpublished Memories, 21.
[122][57] Ibid., 23, 25.
[123][58] Shaykh Muhammad Nazim al-Islam Kermani. Awakening of Iranians, (Tehran: Ibn Sina: 1979), 245.
[124][59] Nikkie R. Keddie. “The Iranian Power Structure and Social Change 1800-1969: An Overview.” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 2 (1971), 5.
[125][60] (Foreign Office Papers) F.O. 416/37, Najaf Mujtahids to Haji ‘Ali Pasha. Constantinople, Sept. 16, 1908, no. 548 (548).
[126][61] Ibid.
[127][62] Sayyid Hasan Taqi-Zadah. Tarikh-i Inqilab-i Iran. (Tehran: Yaghma: 1961); Abdul-Hadi, “”Ulama Participate,” 148.
[128][63] Ibid.
[129][64] Sepher. “Seyyed Hasan Taqizadeh.” (Netherlands: Utrecht University: 1998), 33.
[130][65] Emphasis mine, Edward. Persian, 167-68.
[131][66] Sayyid Muhammad. Unpublished Memories, 21, 23, 25; F.O. 416/37, Najaf Mujtahids to Haji ‘Ali Pasha; Islam Kazimiyyah, “Yaddashtha-yi Sayyid Muhammad Tabataba’i”, (Memories of Sayyid Muhammad Tabtaba’i). Rahnama-yi Kitab XIV (1971): 473.
[132][67] Bayat. First Revolution, 147.
[133][68] Ali and Vali, Democracy in Iran, 26-27.
[134][69] Edward. Persian, 147.
[135][70] Ibid, 123; F.O. 416/37, Najaf Mujtahids to Haji ‘Ali Pasha; Sayyid Muhammad. Unpublished Memories, 21, 23, 25; and Vanessa. Mysticism and Dissent. (New York: Syracuse University Press: 2005), 25.
[136][71] Edward. Persian, 57.
[137][72] Reza. Twentieth Century, 1-3.
[138][73] Ali and Vali. Democracy in Iran, 32-33.
[139][74] Nikkie. “Iranian Power Structure,” 3-4.
[140][75] Ibid.
[141][76] Shaykh Muhammad Isma’il Garavi Mallahati. The Night Tied. (Bushihr, Iran: Muzaffari: 1909), 2-3; and Abdul-Hadi, “‘Ulama Participate…”, 152-53.
[142][77] Abdul-Hadi, “‘Ulama Participate…”, 152-53
[143][78] Jihad means struggle, there is jihad al-akber and jihad al-asghar. Jihad al-akber is the ‘bigger jihad’ that is often referred to the struggle against one’s own lower self (i.e. arrogance, lust, power, etc.) which is an obligation upon all Muslims. But Jihad al-asghar, the ‘lesser jihad,’ deals usually with defensive holy war and only required for Muslim men.
[144][79] Muhammad Mahallati. Wujub al-Mashrutah, 2-3.
[145][80] Ibid., 128.
[146][81] To illustrate, a tree can symbolize din (religion) is the entire tree, both roots and branches together. The roots are usul and the branches are the furoo’. The fundamentals are belief in one, indivisible God, prophethood (and Prophet Muhammad as the last in the line of prophets), and the Day of Judgment, in Twelver Shias this includes Imamate, the spiritual heirs of and political successors to the Prophet. A Muslim is expected to first ponder and understand what the usul-ud-din are and after conviction expected to obey the furoo’-ud-din without doubts. From Sayyid Muhammad Rizvi. “Tendency of Rationalizing the Laws of the Shari’ah” (Al-Islam Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project),
http://al-islam.org/short/shariah.html (accessed April 15, 2007).
[147][82] Ibid.
[148][83] Mangol Bayat. Iran’s First Revolution: Shi’ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909. (New York: Oxford University Press: 1991), 5.
[149][84] Ibid., 255.
[150][85] Hamid Algar, personal communication, 20 April 2007.
[151][86] Taj. Crowning Anguish, 188, 210-212.
[152][87] Hamid. Religion and State, 259-260.
[153][88] Nazim al-Islam. Awakening, 377; Vanessa. Mysticism and Dissent, 25.
[154][89] Mangol, First Revolution, 159.
[155][90] Ibid.
[156][91] Vanessa. Islam and Modernism, 100.
[157][92] Ali and Vali. Democracy in Iran, 28.
[158][93] Vanessa. Islam and Modernism, 103-104
[159][94] Ibid.
[160][95] Tabatabai, Unpublished Memories, 21, 25.
[161][96] Imam Mahdi, sometimes spelled Mehdi is the last in the line of the Twelve Imams. Jesus will also reappear during the Last Days, since Muslims believe that he was never crucified but that God saved him and he is currently in the state of spiritual occultation as well. See Abdulaziz Sachedina. “The Imamate of the Hidden Imam,” and “The Return of the Mahdi” from Islamic Messianism. (Albany: State University of New York Press: 1981), 109-149, 150-179.
[162][97] Shaykh Muhammad Isma’il Garavi Mallahati. Al-La’ali al-Marbutah fi Wujub al-Mashrutah. (The Night Tied in Requirement of the Constitution) (Bushihr, Iran: Muzaffari: 1909), 2-3; and Vanessa. Islam and Modernism, 100.
[163][98] Vanessa. Islam and Modernism, 100.
[164][99] When a qualified jurist, mujtahid, exerts his intellectual faculties to find a solution in law. From Oxford Encyclopedia, under Ijtihad. Wael B. Hallaq and John L. Espito (ed.). (NY: Oxford Univ. Press: 1995), 179.
[165][100] Hamid. Religion and State, 259-260.
[166][101] Ibid.
[168][103] Ibid.
[169][104] The highest ranking of the ‘ulama; “Ayatollah: Derived from ayah and Allah, meaning sign of God, is an honorific title with hierarchical value… with reference to [Qur’an (41:53)]” Oxford Encyclopedia. Jean Calmard and John Espito (ed.) (Oxford: Oxford University Press: 1995), 162.
[170][105] Refer Footnote
[171][106] Hamid Algar, personal communication, 17 March 2007.
[172][107] Vanessa. Mysticism and Dissent, 184.
[173][108] Sayyid Muhammad Unpublished Memories. (Tehran: Nashr’ Abi Publishers, 1382 A.H./1962 C.E.), 21-23.
[174][109] Full name, Sayyid Muhammad ibn Sadiq al-Husseini Muhammad Tabatabai often in Middle Eastern cultures, the name of the father becomes incorporated into the child’s name, signified by ibn meaning ‘the son of’. Here ibn Sadiq al-Husseini is Muhammad Tabatabai’s father’s name.
[175][110] Reza. Twentieth Century. (London: Adamantine Press: 1989), 27; Edward. Persian Revolution, 24, 54; Nikki. Religion and Rebellion, 69, 94, 96.
[176][111] Hamid. Religion and State, 57-58; Ervand. Two Revolutions, 6.
[177][112] Islam Kazimiyyah, “Memories” Rahnama-yi Kitab XIV (1971): 473.
[178][113] Vanessa. Islam and Modernism, 13.
[179][114] Islam Kazimiyyah, “Memories” Rahnama-yi Kitab XIV (1971): 473.
[180][115] National assembly and parliament are synonyms; Vanessa. Islam and Modernism, 13.
[181][116] Hamid Algar, personal communication, 15 March 2007; Reza. Twentieth Century, 37; Muhammad Isma’il. The Night Tied. (Bushihr, Iran: Muzaffari: 1909), 2-3.
[182][117] Vanessa. Islam and Modernism, 30.
[183][118] Nazim al-Islam. Awakening, 245.
[184][119] Ibid., 377.
[185][120] Ibid; Muhammad Nazim al-Islam Kermani. Tarikh-i Bidari-yi Irani-yan, (The Awakening of the Iranians) 2 vols. (Tehran: Ibn Sina: 1967), 1:100-16.
[186][122] Edward. Persian Revolution, 147.
[187][123] I was not able to find the dates of his death.
[188][124] Mangol. First Revolution, 6.
[189][125] Ibid, 147; Vanessa. Islam and Modernism, 13, 70.
[190][126] Vanessa. Islam and Modernism, 64.
[191][127] Reza. Twentieth Century, 42-43.
[192][128] Ibid.; Nazim al-Islam. Awakening, 1:100-16.
[193][129] By “judiciary” he is referring to the ‘ulama who were also skilled Islamic jurists. Mangol. First Revolution, 219.
[194][130] Mangol. First Revolution, 147.
[195][131] Abdul-Hadi. “‘Ulama Participate…?*” Die Welt des Islams XVII, (1976): # 1-4; Vanessa. Islam and Modernism, 111.
[196][132] Madrassa is a religious school.
[197][133] Mangol. First Revolution, 147.
[198][134] F.O. 416/37, Najaf Mujtahids to Haji ‘Ali Pasha.
[199][135] Meir Litvak. Shi’i scholars of Nineteenth–century Iraq: The ‘ulama of Najaf and Karbala’. (Cambridge: University Press: 1998), 185.
[200][136] The highest ranking of the ‘ulama; “Ayatollah: Derived from ayah and Allah, meaning sign of God, is an honorific title with hierarchical value… with reference to [Qur’an (41:53)]” Oxford Encyclopedia. Jean Calmard and John Espito (ed.) (Oxford: Oxford University Press: 1995), 162.
[201][137] Hasan and Husayn, Telegrams sent Feb. 2, 1892 and Feb. 5, 1892; Nikkie. Religion and Rebellion, 145-147.
[202][138] Edward. Persian, 51.
[203][139] Mallahati (The Night Tied in Requirement of the Constitution) and Naini, (The Awakening of the Iranians) left behind first-hand accounts of the ‘ulama before and during the Constitutional Revolution (1905-1911).
[204][140] Ibid., 183, 185.
[205][141] Emphasis mine, F.O. 416/37, Najaf Mujtahids to Haji ‘Ali Pasha.
[206][142] Ibid.
[207][143] Ibid., 188.
[208][144] Edward. Persian, 168.
[209][145] Nikki R. Keddie, Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution, (Yale University Press, New Haven, 2003), 181.
[210][146] Reza. Twentieth Century, 35.
[211][147] Ibid, 5; Seyyed Hasan Taqizadeh, “Some Chronological Data Relating to the Sasanian Period”, Vol. 9, No. 1 (1937), An Ancient Persian Practice Preserved by a Non-Iranian People” Vol. 9, No. 3 (1938), “Various Eras and Calendars used in the Countries of Islam” in Bulletin of School of Oriental Studies, University of London, Vol. 10, No. 1 (1939); and Seyyed, Iraj Afshar (ed.). Nameh-haye Landan (The London Letters), letter no.9, 53- 66.
[212][148] A northwestern Iranian city in the province of Azerbaijan, south of Armenia and Russia that was important commercially and politically.
[213][149] Sepher. “Seyyed Hasan Taqizadeh,” 11.
[214][150] Ibid., 29-30.
[215][151] Nikki. Modern Iran. (Yale University Press, New Haven, 2003), 181.
[216][152] Sepher. “Seyyed Hasan Taqizadeh,” 30.
[217][153] Sayyid Hasan Taqi-Zadah. Tarikh-i Inqilab-i Iran (History of the Revolution in Iran). (Tehran: Yaghma: 1961), 10; Hairi, “‘Ulama Participate,” 148.
[218][154] Ibid.
[219][155] Babism was a proto-form of Baha’ism. Hamid Algar, personal communication, 30 January 2007. Emphasis mine, Edward. Persian, 168.
[220][156] Shaikh Fazlallah, S’ual va Javab. (Bombay, India: Publisher Unknown, 1893).
[221][157] Edward. Persian, 242.
[222][158] Mangol. First Revolution, 147.
[223][159] The Pan-Islamic belief was popular during the 20th century, it sought to unify all Muslims under one territory (Qajar Iran and Ottoman Turkey) and one denomination (Muslim, not Shia or Sunni).
[224][160] He visited European countries addressing his ideas of a Pan Islamic identity to crowds of people who rejected him repeatedly, eventually Sultan Abdul Hamid in Ottoman Turkey received him, impressed, he raised him to a high position of Shaykh al-Islam. Shaykh al-Islam was the highest office of ministry of religious affairs in the Ottoman Empire.
[225][161] Afghani’s promotion of conspiracy theories led to his exile from Asia Minor. He left for India, promoting anticolonial nationalist rhetoric (i.e. against materialism, colonialism, absolutist monarchy, etc.), and identified with other contemporary movements such as the ‘Urabi Movement in Egypt (1882 onwards) and the Young Turks of Ottoman Turkey (1876-1900s). Ibid., 1-2, 6-11; and Abdul-Hadi. “Why did the ‘Ulama Participate in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909?*” Die Welt des Islams XVII, 133.
[226][162] Edward. Persian, 242.
[227][163] Shaikh Fazlallah, S’ual va Javab. (Bombay, India: Publisher Unknown, 1893).
[228][164] Vanessa. Mysticism and Dissent, 143-44. He was willing to receive money by selling off a vaqf (charitable institution), Hamid. Religion and State, 244-45.
[229][165] Edward. Persian, 168
[231][167] Shaikh Fazlallah, S’ual va Javab. (Bombay, India: Publisher Unknown, 1893); Sayyid Muhammad Unpublished Memories, 21-23. Abdul-Hadi. “‘Ulama Participate…”, 127; Vanessa. Islam and Modernism, 64
[233][169] Ibid., 20.
[234][170] Ali and Vali. Democracy in Iran, 30.
[235][171] Nikkie. “Iranian Power Structure,” 19-20; Tariq Ramadan. Said Amghar (transl.). “Islam, the West and the Challenges of Modernity.” (Baltimore: The Islamic Foundation), 56.
[236][172] Talal Asad. Genealogies of Religion: Discipline and Reasons for Power in Christianity and Islam. (London: John Hopkins University Press: 1993), 27; Ali Gheissari and Vali Nasr. Democracy in Iran: History and the Quest for Liberty. (New York: Oxford University Press: 2006), 10.
[237][173] Ibid.
